Academic Integrity: Policy and Regulations

Academic Integrity:  Policy and Regulations

The draft regulations issued by the University Grants Commission (UGC) on September 1, to curb plagiarism in the country are most welcome and a timely step, in view of the rising plagiarism and ubiquity of other kinds of unethical academic practices. An elaborate academic integrity policy at university level, coupled with the aforesaid stern regulations at the national level, as issued recently by the UGC¹, can well curb the menace of all kinds of ongoing academic dishonesty, including plagiarism. The University Grants Commission (UGC) has recently released these Draft regulations entitled, UGC (Promotion of Academic Integrity and Prevention of Plagiarism in Higher Education Institutions) Regulations 2017 for discussions and invited responses of stakeholders till September 30, on curbing plagiarism. The aim of these regulations is also to create requisite academic awareness among the scholars and faculty members. The UGC has revealed its concern towards plagiarism and is also endeavouring to invoke responsible conduct in all researches, and prevent misconduct, including plagiarism, in the academic writings².  Penal provisions have also been proposed in these proposed regulations. The draft, indeed also seeks to establish institutional mechanism for the promotion of academic integrity and develop systems to detect and prevent plagiarism. The draft proposes to  direct every Higher Education Institute (HEI) to instruct students, faculty, and staff about proper attribution, seeking permission of the author wherever necessary, acknowledgement of source compatible with the needs and specificities of disciplines and in accordance with rules and regulations governing the source.’’³ Stern punishments are proposed in the regulations for the candidates as well as for their supervisors for acts of plagiarism. However, certain other forms of academic dishonesty also need to be covered in the regulations and be curbed sternly. Some such dishonest policies are-data fabrication, contract cheating, availing of paid services, professional misconduct, false and non-confirmable experimental or trial results, frivolous or fraudulent reports, sabotage, dry-labbing and bribed reports.

The quality deficit syndrome, infesting dimensions of academic performance in the country, including the teaching, examinations, research, publications, faculty recruitment & development, poor employability of passouts, poor intellectual property creation,

mediocracy and poor world ranking of Indian universities as well as of the elite institutes, can largely be remedied by combating the academic dishonesty, prevalent in various forms in certain quarters. Recently, some persons, holding high positions in some of the Indian Universities, including the Central Universities, too have faced charges of plagiarism, and have invited stern action for plagiarism, even including dismissals from job. Still, the growing incidents of plagiarism are very unfortunate and disappointing for the current educational scenario and the standards in the country. Plagiarism is considered as an academic sin by the universities all over the world. So, stern law and regulations are needed in India as well in this regard. A large majority of Euro-American and Australian universities already have elaborate Academic Integrity Policies and Copyrights Policies for the purpose.

Plagiarism:

Basically the “Plagiarism” has been derived from the Latin word “Plagiare” means “to kidnap or abduct”. Indeed to plagiarize means stealing and passing off the ideas or words of someone else as one’s own. It is a form of literary or scientific theft and be taken at par with theft or fraud because it contains both, elements i.e., stealing someone else’s work and lying about it afterwards i.e. commitment of fraud. So, to use or incorporate someone else’s work into one’s own work, without an acknowledgement is known as “PLAGIARISM”. It is one of the most severe violation of the Academic writing, and bane of quality in education, research and publications.

Need to Stress for Paraphrasing with Citations: If proper Paraphrasing is done in any written work and the source of the work has been cited to avoid attracting of charge of plagiarism or cheating, then it does not fall in the category of plagiarism. Paraphrasing is restating another person’s work in our own way, so the credit must be given to the real owner of the intellectual property in the work. For this purpose ‘’The Higher Education Institutes are therefore also required, under these new regulations of September 1,  to conduct sensitization seminars and awareness programmes on responsible conduct of research, project work, assignment, thesis, dissertation, promotion of academic integrity and ethics in education for students, faculty and other members of academic staff.’’⁴  It would caution all the stakeholders.

Growing Menace:

The plagiarism, whether wittingly or unwittingly, is spreading across all academic pursuits, viz, course work assignments, summer internship reports, project dissertation for PG or Ph. D programmes, articles, research papers, books being authored and so on. Complaints against plagiarism are on the rise. But, due to lack of formal norms and provisions of penalty or punishment against plagiarism being proven beyond doubt also used to go unpenalised, leading to decline in the quality of research and publications in the country. Therefore, ‘’The institutes have also being instructed through these new and proposed regulations to implement adequate software and other mechanisms which would ensure that thesis, dissertation or any other such documents submitted are free of plagiarism.’’³ ‘’The UGC has asked all the State and Central universities to use anti-plagiarism software to check duplication of Ph.D. theses. Making it mandatory for the university to use anti-plagiarism software before awarding Ph.D.s, the UGC has recommended ‘URKUND’ software.’’⁵

Plagiarism is not confined in academic field alone, recently an allegation of plagiarism was leveled even against the Division Bench of the Delhi High Court by the Spicy IP blog on December 1, 2015. The Delhi High Court Bench was alleged by the complainant, of having plagiarised thirty three paras in its judgment in Roche V. Cipla case from a law review article written by Swetashree Majumdar and Eashan Ghosh in the Queen Mary Journal of Intellectual Property. The Delhi High Court acknowledged plagiarism in the order passed on 8th December, 2015 and apologised to the authors⁸. The responsibility of the plagiarism has devolved upon an intern who had written the precise facts of the case. Though such an instance is only single. However the copyright law needs to be revamped to take care of such incidents. But, rapidly growing incidents are most worrisome in the academic circles. What would be the ultimate fate of our Education System, having chronic quality deficit if plagiarism would perpetual.  So, the growing incidents of plagiarism in the academic field are quite worrisome, and the UGC has taken a right step.

Reflection on Quality

Rapid spread of this sinister termite of plagiarism has been eating the quality of our academics and has been perpetuating unabated for want of any formal norms, penalties or punishments for incidents of such rising academic dishonesty. For stealing a petty sum or any material property or on kidnapping, the culprit is liable to be penalized and imprisoned. But, on stealing or kidnapping another person’s intellectual property, comprising ideas, inventions, original work, authorships or findings etc largely the culprit goes unscathed and unpenalised, for want of any relevant law. Further, the students, scholars and even faculty members using other person’s work as their own work for self enhancement, extinguish real work and scuttle quality. The plagiarism has not been confined to students and fresh scholars alone but, many high profile academic luminaries, have also attracted prosecutions. Today, the quality deficit in academics is so severe, that India ranks at 60^th rank in the Global Innovations Index (GII)⁷ and has hardly 20 universities in the top 959 QS World University Rankings, and only towards the tail end. In the Global Research citations frequency India has 3.1% share, inspite of being home to 17.8% of world population and 20% of global youth, wherein 3.5 crore students pursuing higher education in India, are almost equal to the entire population of Canada. To the contrary, UK has only 1% of the world population. Yet, it has 15.8% share of the world’s most highly-cited articles⁹. International research citations.

Need to Broaden the Scope

The scope of the regulations on promotion of academic integrity need to be further broad based to cover other forms of academic dishonesty. The regulations must take care of certain other acts of commission, stated henceforth:

(i)        Fabrication: Another major act of academic dishonesty, quite prevalent in the country is fabrication which means concoction or falsification of data, information and citations. It is nonetheless than a grave fraud to give false empirical data in support of unsustainable and false claims responsible for misleading conclusions, away from any reality. All such claims of so called fake researches can play havoc, if used in reality in the area of wealth care, agrochemicals etc. as they would be totally misleading. Fabrication is an easy and quick method of falsification of data, information, or citations in any formal academic exercise with an intent to skip real work. This includes making up citations to back up arguments or inventing quotations. Fabrication predominates in the natural sciences, but not alien to social sciences as well, where students sometimes falsify data to make experiments work. It includes data falsification, in which false claims are made about research performed, survey conducted or experiment claimed to have been conducted, including selective submitting of results to exclude inconvenient data for generating bogus data.

Bibliographical references are often fabricated or copied or imported from other works, especially when a certain minimum number of references is required or considered sufficient for the particular kind of paper. This type of fabrication can range from referring to works whose titles look relevant or whose titles are quoted by other researchers, but which the student concerned did not read.

The most sinister category of fabrication is signing of reports, provided by the companies sponsoring trials of their pharma or agrochemical molecule(s) by the academic fraternity, without actual trail or without regard to their own real trail results.

(ii)            Dry Labbing: There is also a growing tendency of dry-labbing in physical sciences and other lab related technical courses or experiments, in which the teacher expects that the student’s experiments, should yield results, which confirm the established law or principle. ‘’In the most benign sense, a “dry lab” refers to a facility in which computer simulations of scientific hypotheses are performed. This term is in contrast to a “wet lab,” a facility in which equipment and personnel exist to perform hands-on scientific research and experimentation. However, most of the time, “dry lab” is used as a verb, and means that supposed lab data was actually created on paper only, usually to conform to some desired result. In other words, to dry lab is to cheat, plain and simple. As you might expect, there are varying degrees of this practice’’¹⁰. Unscrupulous student sometimes start from the results and works backward, in the style of reverse engineering, calculating what the experimental data should be even sometimes adding variation to the data. In some cases, the lab report is written before the experiment is conducted—in some cases, the experiment is never carried out. In either case, the results are what the instructor expects. Even when the season for that experiment to be conducted and data are manipulated.

(iii)       Other Kinds of Dishonesty: There are several other dishonest copycat project reports by replacing the academic practices like contract cheating and engaging or hiring third party commercial agencies to complete a project or write a dissertation. Deception, bribery, impersonation, sabotage of others work are also quite frequent these days. Professional misconduct, including harassment of feminine scholars all need to be curbed.

Legal Position and Action Required

There has been no law, regulations or policy to curb academic dishonesty in the country hitherto. Whereas, in several countries majority of the universities have their own elaborate Academic Integrity Policies. In view of the rising incidents of all kinds of dishonest practices, need was being felt for a national law or regulations to be invoked. So, the draft regulations of the UGC would go in a being way to deal with the situation. As on date, there is no such defind right for the creator of any intellectual property to be protected against plagiarisation, as it is not recognised by any law in India. Though, the section 57 of the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 gives authors inter alia, the right to claim authorship. Section 63 of the same Act considers infringement of copyright as a criminal offence and awards punishment.  On conviction, the infringers may be awarded imprisonment. They have also to compensate the aggrieved party in monetary terms for the act of infringing. But, ordinarily, Plagiarism is not dealt under copyright laws. So, culprits go unscathed.

So, it is most appropriate, when the UGC has already took the initiative to come up with a comprehensive Draft Academic Integrity Policy and Regulations, with suitable preventive, remedial and penal measures. At a time when, plagiarism and other dishonest practices are acquiring alarming proportions, a national law to amend the existing copyright law, to curb such practices, with elaborate rules would also be a most welcome step. To remedy the present quality deficit syndrome from higher education, including research, publications and innovations, vis a vis global standards, the scope of regulations may be broadbased to cover data fabrication, contract cheating, availing of paid services, professional misconduct, false and non-confirmable experimental or trial results, frivolous or fraudulent reports, sabotage dry-labbing and bribed reports.   

References

1.      UGC circular No. F.1-18/2010 (CPP-II) dated the 1^st September, 2017 accompanied by the Draft regulations at www.ugc.ac.in/pdfnews/8864815_UGC-Public-Notice-on-Draft_Regulations,-2017.pdf

2.     UGC UGC draft new policy to check plagiarism in academic research, http://www.ndtv.com/education/ugc-drafts-new-policy-to-check-plagiarism-in-academic-research-1745424

3.      ibid

4.      ibid

5.      ibid

6. UGC mandates universities to check theses with anti-plagiarism software, http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Tiruchirapalli/ugc-mandates-universities-to-check-theses-with-antiplagiarism-software/article7938979.ece

7.      Economic Times, June 16, 2017, India climbs global innovation charts for second year in a row.

8.      Ashok KM, Live Law. in, Delhi High Court apologizes to authors for copying their article in the judgement; takes corrective action, December 9, 2015

9.      Iris Kisjes, Elsevier Elsevier Connect Report: How do the large research nations compare? The  UK ‘punches above its weight,’ surpassing US in research quality Posted on 10 December 2013

10.  By Michael D. Shaw Dry Labbing And How It Might Be Affecting You April 23, 2012, Interscan Corporation www.gasdetection.com/interscan-in-the-news/magazine-articles/dry-labbing-might-affecting/

New Pedagogical Approaches for Effective Gurus

India has 4 crore students enrolled in higher education, more than the total population of Canada. But, many employers do not consider a large number of the graduating students employable. Every year even some of the IITs also terminate several students for poor performance. Both of these can largely be remedied by employing a proper combination of pedagogical approaches. To make the students passing out from various streams better employable by facilitating effective learning, by  combining  suitable modern approaches of adult learning (andragogy), self directed learning  (heutagogy) etc.  in addition to the conventional pedagogies which focus to facilitate child learning. Likewise, a suitable combination of appropriate transition pedagogies should be employed to better familiarise and engage the students in learning, and to avoid the ugly state of poor performance, necessitating termination of students; who get admission only after the fiercest of the admission-competition in the country. Therefore, the present paper attempts to give a brief overview of some of the modern approaches capable to optimize learning through better customized blend of teaching approaches and help the students smoothly transit in the institutes of higher learning.   

A host of new teaching-learning approaches have evolved in the preceding 2-3 decades to facilitate better learning, especially for adult learning, self directed learning and peer to peer learning, hitherto unheard and never employed before to supplement the conventional pedagogies focused at child learning (peda/pedo/paedo= child). These newer learning facilitating approaches in addition to the conventional pedagogical approaches are:

(i) andragogy,   (ii) heutagogy,     (iii) critical pedagogy,    

(iv) ecopedagogy,   (v)ubuntugogy,     (vi) creative pedagogy,   

(vii) peeragogy,   (viii) hip-hop critical pedagogy    (ix) public pedagogy

 (x) transition pedagogy 

 The conventional methods and techniques of teaching-learning like lecture method, discussions slide shows etc.  need to be complemented with a blend of newer approaches, including various newly emerging pedagogical, andragogical, heutagogical, peeragogical and similar other approaches to enhance  knowledge, skills and capabilities of graduating students in the today's hypercompetive   knowledge-driven economy. Moreover, to remedy the problem of poor employability of graduating youth, appropriate blending of pedagogical, ragogical, and heutagogical, peeragogical and other modern approaches of teaching is necessary in our colleges and universities. This paper therefore, attempts to elucidate some major approaches or gogies out of the 10 such gogies or approaches in vogue, viz the pedagogy, andragogy and heutagogy. The various approaches of teaching or gogies which can help in enhancing the efficacy of teaching and educating are: pedagogy, andragogy, heutagogy, critical pedagogy, ecopedagogy, ubuntugogy, creative pedagogy, peeragogy, hip-hop critical pedagogy and public pedagogy. The present day teaching faculty needs to be familiarized and equipped to employ these neo-advanced teaching techniques, appropriately with comfort, to make their students or pupils better employable.

Indeed, enabling of the students to optimally learn and to prepare them for the forthcoming competitive era, teaching approaches need to be customized to equip the students with the knowledge, skills and competencies needed to thrive in such a hypercompetitive economy. Modern day teachers and educators need to embrace ever newer methodologies that are more relevant to the exigencies of today's learning (Educators technology.com 12 Nov 24, 2013). Andragogical and heutagogical approaches, along with other newer evolving gogies need to complement the conventional pedagogical approaches. India has a vast number of 32.5 crore students enrolled in 13.96 lakh schools, almost equal to the total US population, and 3.5 crore students, almost equal to  the total Canadian population, enrolled with 830 universities and 45000 colleges. But, such vast mass of our students fare very badly, when compared internationally. Our school going students have stood second from bottom, in a comparative evaluation made under the ‘Programme for International Students Assessment’ (PISA), being conducted among the 15-year old school students of 73 countries. Regarding the employability- percentage of students, graduating from universities, various agencies in the country put it at 07 to 45 percent for students of different streams. To better this score at a faster pace, we have to enrich and complement our lecture and discussion dominated pedagogy, often leading to monotony in learning need to be broad based by three of the

major "gogies" (pedagogy andragogy and heutagogy), supported by the seven similar gogies like (i) critical pedagogy, (ii) ecopedagogy, (iii) ubuntugogy, (iv)creative pedagogy (v) peeragogy, (vi) hip-hop critical pedagogy and (vii) public pedagogy.

The present paper instead of explaining all the ten "gogies", which have a spread of a full separate monograph, would focus upon some of the easily employable and hyper-effective techniques. However, it would yet not be out of context to explain the three premier 'gogies' (pedagogy, andragogy and heutagogy) to facilitate better understanding of the conduct of such approaches employed under the guise of the three gogies.    

The Pedagogical model of instruction was originally developed in the monastic schools of Europe in the middle Ages. Pedagogy is derived from the Greek word “Paed’’ or ‘’Pedo” or ‘’Ped’’ meaning child, plus “agogos” meaning leading. As such, young boys were received into the monasteries and taught by monks according to a system of structured instruction that required these children to be obedient, faithful and efficient servers for the church (Knowles 1984). Hence,  now in cosmopolitan secular culture as well pedagogy has been defined as the art and science of teaching children. It is based on the assumption that learners need to know, what the teacher teaches them (Hiemstra & Sirco 1990). The result is a teaching and learning situation that actively promotes dependency on the instructor (Knowles: 1984). But, unlike children, the adults with their maturity, and experience need to be educates with andragogical approaches and also through self directed (heutagogical) approaches to the problem solving, depict least interest and involvement in the pedagogical approach of instruction, suited more to teach children, resulting into poor compatibility of the learners to cope with the ever newer real life problems and challenges, emerging out of the rapidly changing scenario. Androgogy

Andragogy and its Underlying Assumptions

         The growth and development of andragogy as an alternative model of instruction has helped to remedy this situation and improve the teaching of adults (Hiemstra & Sisco: 1990). According to Julie et. al, andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn. Malcolm Knowles (1978, 1990) while introducing the concept of adult learning for the first time has argued that adulthood can be said to have arrived, when people behave in adult ways and adopt independent approach in viewing things, solving problems and exploring ways to solve the same. By this criteria a student even at degree level itself, be treated adult and needs to be educated with andragogical approach. Burns (1995, P. 233) also opines the same by saying that, at adulthood people are self directing. Hence, the andragogical approach in management education has to be more and more student centered, experience based, problem oriented and collaborative to facilitate learning instead of merely transmitting the theoretical concepts of textbooks through lectures, audio visual techniques and other programmed instructional pedagogy. According to Knowles (1978, 1990) adult learning is special in a number of ways and is based upon the following assumptions.

·    Adult learners bring a great deal of experience to the learning environment. Educators can use this as a resource.

·    Adults expect to have a high degree of influence on what they are to be educated for, and how they are to be educated.

·    The active participation of learners should be encouraged in designing and implementing educational programs.

·    Adults need to be enabled to see applications for new learning.

·   Adult learners expect to have a high degree of influence on how learning will be evaluated.

·   Adults expect their responses to be acted upon when asked for feedback on the progress of the program.

Distinctive Attributes 

Based on the above assumptions of adult learning, the pedagogical approach of transmitting knowledge in management education can be distinguished from the andragogy on following four counts:

(i)    Teacher Learner Roles

(ii)     Learning Resources and Techniques

(iii)   Motive

(iv)   Focus

Theories of adult Learning

Andragogical approach in learning helps to overcome many of the limitations encountered by lecture and audio-visual presentation based classroom teaching. Over dependence on this latter approach results in poor learning. Classroom learning is often dubbed as inefficient method of education. According to Stewart (2001: p 184) half the people in class often secretly work on their “real” jobs; half are so relieved not to be doing their real jobs, they have turned their minds entirely off. Half already know, half the stuff being taught. Half will never need to know more than half of it. Hence andragogical approach draws its strength from the following major theories of adult learning:

1.         Action Learning

2.         Experiential Learning

3.         Project Based Learning

4.         Self Directed Learning

Their relevance can be better understood from Table 2, an abridged form of the table created by Mandy McEntyre and Jenn Pahl(2006).

Complementarity of Pedagogy  Andragogy and Heutagogy :

Andragogy is though, a distinctive model for educating adult students of business studies, but need not be seen as dichotomous with pedagogical approach. Rather, the two approaches (Pedagogy and andragogy) are to be seen as two ends of a spectrum to be used in proper blend (Knowles: 1980). The pedagogical and andragogical techniques that can be appropriately blended for optimum learning along with heutagogy. They are not mutually exclusive, but complementary to enhance reciprocal efficacy. The techniques of teaching falling under the three gogies can be enumerated as under:

Lecture Method	Vestibule School
Chapter Reviews	Case study
Discussions	Role Play
Group Discussion (GD) Method	Simulations and Mind Games
Fish Bowl Exercise (A superior variant of GD)	In basket simulation
Special Readings	Business/Management Games
Slides or Power Point Presentation	Project Based Learning
Audio Recordings	Facilitating Experiential Learning
Video Recordings	Syndicate Method
Films on Television or LCDs	E-Teaching Learning
Presentations	Outward Bound Learning
Participatory Teaching	Sensitivity Method
Conference	Problem Based Learning

   Heutagogy:

Heutagogy is basically a learner centric technique and is focused on 'self determined learning'. Thus, where as the andragogy grew out of the term pedagogy, heutagogy was created as an offshoot of andragogy.  We see that in Hase and Kenyon’s 2001 article entitled, “From Andragogy to Heutagogy.” Heutagogy maintains the andragogical learner-centered emphasis, but takes it a step further by also highlighting the importance of develop the skills necessary to learn on one’s own. As such, heutagogy is often described as the study of self-determined or self-directed learning.  It is not just about learning content, but also learning how to learn.  It is an especially relevant approach in the digital age, given the vast amount of content and resources available to anyone with a device and Internet access.  Given so much information, how can people learn to leverage these resources to engage in lifelong learning?  Where pedagogy and andragogy continue to reflect to some degree upon the role of the teacher, heutagogy moves beyond this, focusing exclusively on the learner and this notion of self-directed learning. As explained by Hase and Kenyon, “the learner decides what and how to learn.”[Bernard Bull: 2013 April 23]

Indian universities and colleges need to assimilate and adopt appropriate andragogical, heutagogical and other suitable approaches, along with the conventional pedagogical approaches to improve transmission of knowledge as well as to upgrade skills and capabilities to overcome the problem of poor employability of Indian graduates. A recent study of Aspiring Minds (a New Delhi based employment solutions company) published in India Today in Education, dated July 13, 2016, alleges that only 7% of India’s engineering graduates are employable and another study of ASSOCHAM published on July 11, 2016 alleges that 93% of country’s MBA graduates are not employable. The figures of employability have come down in last 3-5 years. Same is true with accounting professionals and other graduates. A pedagogical advancement and optimization (including that of the andragogical and heutagogical as well other seven gogies) becomes indispensable to enhance learning and improve student capabilities. So, the modern guru have to equip themselves with the various denova and emerging gogies of teaching to better engage and turnout well employable alumini. On top of all a host pedagogies have also evolved for deep ingraining of ethics and values in the conduct and behavior of the learners. Modern gurus have to master such pedagogies as well.  

References:

Burns, R. 1995 The adult learner at work Business and Professional Publishing, Sydney

Burns, S. 1995 ‘Rapid changes require enhancement of adult learning’ HRMonthly June, pp 16-17.

Hiemstra, R., & Sisco, B. (1990). Individualizing instruction. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Knowles, M.S. (1968). Androgogy, not pedagogy! Adult Leadership, 16, 350-352, 386.

Knowles, M.S. (1975). Self-directed learning. New York: Association Press.

Knowles, M.S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education (revised and updated). Chicago: Association Press (originally published in 1970).

Knowles, M. (1984). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston: Gulf Publishing.

Knowles, M.S.(1986). Using learning contracts. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Knowles, M., & Asspcoates/ (1984). Andragogy in Action. Applying modern principles of adult education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Knowles, M.(2002). Lifelong learning: A Dream. Creating the future: Perspective on Educational Change, v. January. October 10, 2003.

 http://www.newhorizons.org/future/Creating_the_Future/crfut_knowles.html.

Terry Heick, Androgogy v/s heutagogoy. Png (PNG Image, 1430*1100 pixels)- Scale…..http://3.bp.blogpost.com/-MOeldagg.CA/UPKeQRSLLgI/AAAAA..

Stewart Hase and chris Kenyon (2001), www.pry.gla.ac.uk/~steve/pr/Heutagogy.html

Mandy McEntyre and Jenn Pahl(2006), Learning Theories Related to Adult Learning. http//mataconine.mate.net…./Learning_Theories_Related_to_Adult_Learning.docx?

Stewart, T.(2201). Mystified by training? Here are some clues. Fortune, v. 143,p.184.

Stewart, D.W.(1986a) Adult learning in America: Eduard lindeman and his agenda for lifelong learning. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing.

Stewart, D.H. (1986b). Prespectives. Lifelong Learning: An Omnibus of Practice and Research, 9(5), 2.

The Difference Between Pedagogy, Andragogy, And Heutagogy, http:/www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/a-primer-in-heutagogy-and-s…